Different approaches to HRM

Different approaches to HRM (Business strategy, p-3)The meaning and nature of HRM has aggravated much debate (for an overview see Legge, 1995).Sisson (1990) Distinguished HRM by explaining four distinguishing features, that is the assimilation of personnel policies with business planning; responsibility From specialists to line managers responsibility has to be shifted; uniqueness in the management of employee relations and an emphasis on securing employee dedication and initiative. Guest (1992, p.42) argues that HRM is designed to produce, Strategic integration, high commitment, high quality and flexibility and that, Strategic integration refers to the ability of the organisation to integrate HRM issues into its strategic plans, to ensure that the various aspects of HRM cohere and for line managers to fit in an HRM perspective into their decision-making. Hendry and Pettigrew (1986) contrast that strategic HRM is featured by four fundamentals: the use of planning; the design by a coherent approach and management of workforce systems underpinned by some philosophy; business approach is coordinated with the HRM actions and policy; and considering the people of the organisation as strategic resources in the accomplishment of competitive strategy. Human resource requires in an organisation will vary at different stages in the business life cycle and so HR policy choices need to be personalized to the appropriate stage (Kochan and Barocci,1985; Lengnick-Hall and Lengnick-Hall, 1988). Sisson (1994) suggests that it was the pursuit of competitive advantage in the.There is a number of different approaches in HRM to aid the development of business strategy. It can be professed as social ethics, reminding the senior management about their social responsibilities.HRM department spent most of time functioning on personal welfare problems. The main concern of HRM is the control of personnel as well as reduces the absent rate of employee, work force budgeting and headcount. In other way of HRM helps to develop the business, likewise, to adapt the company with the change and strives to have positive influences by using social science applications to man agreement problems by via job redesign, job satisfaction scheme and techniques of communication. Sometimes HRM deals with job recruitment, transfer and termination by the request from manager. Moreover, human resource management concerned strategic business planning, developing long-term human resources plan and industrial relation strategy. HR planning and acquisition Organisation design structure Organisations strategy Training development Compensation Management Organisation Performance Management Management of employee relations HR mobility management HR toolbox management Figure: Human Resource Management system The key success of any business organisation is human resource. So HRM use these human resources effectively to meet the strategic business objectives of the organisation. 2. Necessity of alignment between organisations corporate strategy and objectives and its human resource strategy: P-133,134.In perfect world, the business and strategic organisational plan are the translated form of organisational mission and goals. According to the principle of alignment, to achieve corporate goals in every aspects of an organisations activities have to be incorporated and pull together. The performance of the people within the organisation depends on the achievement of strategy and vision which in turn calls for high level of motivation and dedication among employees. The organisational mission, goals and values is reflected by the performance of the employees and their excellent performance relies on the opportunities how much they are getting from the business. P-75.In an organisation different functional area like: marketing, manufacturing and human resource, after formulating corporate and business level strategy managers need to translate strategic precedence into these areas. This contains all the different aspects of business but predominantly have to be comprehensible between the requirements of organisations strategy and HR policy. There are two types of fit that HR policy and practices require to attain: a) Internal alignment b) External alignment Internal Alignment: In internal alignment managers must have to make sure that their HR practices are all associated with one another within the organisations to set up a formation that is reinforced mutually. From organisations point of view the whole variety of HR practices-job design, training, staffing, performance appraisal and compensation must have to be focused on the same personnel objectives. External Alignment: The link between business strategies and key initiatives in human resource are mainly focused by external alignment. 3. The processes required in order to assess the effectiveness of human resource strategy and its impact on overall corporate strategy: Diagram: Typical strategic recruitment process Dynamic Environment Recruitment requisition Position analysis Vision Position description Strategic business plan Human resource strategy Human resource plans and policy Recruitment process Position evaluation Key stakeholders Budget check sourcing Dynamic Environment Pool of applicants Selection process Source: Nankervis A, Compton, R, Braid, M, 2005, Strategic Human Resource Management (6th edition), Cengage, South Melbourne. Recruitment: A major concern is a recruitment and retention of staff; especially where the pool of availability of workforce is limited. However, due to the requirement of high skill personnel, a shortage of prospective recruits exists in an organisation. [Business .s 2.ref].The decision of staffing has been formalised by the HRM department at head office. Organisation [Managing people: fresh perspectives By Bates Bronwynne, p-214] provide work for people in different position to achieve their own goals. Most of the organisations have vacancy at different time around the year and they need to be filled them on time to continue their work effectively. For recruit and select the best person for the vacancy organisations have to follow certain processes. The personnel decision process helps the organisation to make a decision about the person to who is going to appoint. It makes sure that it will be fairly treated with all the individuals who are going to apply for the post. All the candidates are evaluated on the basis of related skills and behaviours. The outputs of every decision affect the working lives of employees, whose requirements must be met. The organisational productivity increasingly depends on these employees because of hiring right person for the job. The human resources decisions based on the following seven steps: 1. Getting job oriented information through job analysis. The process of identifying tasks, duties and responsibilities is job analysis. Once it has been completed, job analysis leads to identify the knowledge, abilities and skills required to do the job that is job description. After that, organisations will continue through job specification. 2. Identify the measures of job success: There is way of measuring job success called criteria and that is measured through organisational psychologist. 3. Identify predictors and measures 4. Determining the relationship between and predictors job success 5. Developing a recruitment strategy 6. Implementing the selection process 7. Determining the worth of selection system An organisation basically follows two strategies for recruiting suitable qualified individuals. These are- Internal recruitment An Organisation first tries to fill an open position internally through current employees inside the organisation by advertising. External recruitment There are wide range of strategies for recruiting people from outside the organisation like-giving advertisement at newspaper by providing information about job requirements, job duties and responsibilities. The other way of recruiting is through internet. It will create problems for them who dont have the access the internet. Large organisations visit campuses of universities of technologies to recruit their candidates is known as campus recruitment. Sometimes organisations employ human resources recruitment agencies and their services are to provide the whole recruitment process. These are not on low-cost. The least costly external recruitment technique is employee referrals technique. This is a technique by which ask to someone in current employees about they have someone who is interested for this open position. The main advantages of external recruitment are that helps to get new ideas and skills into the organisation. Sometimes it does create problems for them because they dont have knowledge about the new environment and culture. Employees need to spend more time on that. Selection: The process of choosing appropriate candidates for the organisation when it has received applications for open jobs is known as selection. This is the final steps of recruitment process. It is the combinations of eight basic steps. Recruiting candidates Carrying out application form Screening test Checking of reference Arrangement of psychological test Arrange interview for selection Medical check up Making an offer to successful candidates There are some additional terms which used by the organisational psychologist during the process of selection. This are-job selection ratio, realistic preview of job and cut-off. Retention: It is very important and ongoing issue. Its a serious problem when an organisation will have to face continuously for the estimated future. An organisation always wants to retain employees in short of supply and they want to have alternatives. Organisations always keep going on developing their own plan to retain employees by conveying responsibility. The main base of retention job description, recruitment, selection and orientation. (Keeping your valuable employees: retention strategies for your organizations most important resource, By Suzanne Dibble, p-27, 31).Mainly retention focus on job satisfaction and fit with the organisational culture and the strategies based on this should focus on maximising three types of satisfaction. These are personal, professional and social. If organisation fails to recruit right person for the right track then organisations has to suffer and employees has to suffer as well. For example; hidden cost incurred by the management to fix that problems. F or that reason organisation has to loss their productivity. From the employees point of view-they have to face problems due to not having proper skills in specified job. They have to spent more time and energy on finding new position. Overall they become frustrated. Communication, recognition and future orientation are the key attributes for successful strategies for retention. There are different types of retention strategies based on organisational situations-strategies based on compensation, strategies based on work environment and strategies based on career orientation(Strategies for managing IS/IT personnel,Magid Igbaria, Conrad Shayo,Idea Group Inc (IGI), 2004 Business HYPERLINK http://www.google.co.uk/search?tbs=bks:1,bkv:atbo=pq=+subject:Business++Economicssource=gbs_ge_summary_rcad=0HYPERLINK http://www.google.co.uk/search?tbs=bks:1,bkv:atbo=pq=+subject:Business++Economicssource=gbs_ge_summary_rcad=0 Economics,p-13). Strategy based on compensation: There are some organisation focuses on compensation such as IT firms. Strategies based on work environment: Most of the organisations focus on internal environment of the organisation or the culture of the organisation. Strategies based on career development: some companies focus on retention strategies through career development. Training, Learning and Development: Training plays an important role for the development of all employees which responds to individuals and helps to achieve organisational requirements by improving performance and understanding (Armstrong, 1992).Considering with the strategic direction, how the organisations core competencies of employees can be identified and advantages taken from environmental factors. From the training and development terms, this can implement the classical training cycle and business planning come close to determining training needs (Mayo and Pickard, 1998). [Human resource development: learning training for individuals organizations By John P. Wilson, p-88] Organisation objective Planning Evaluating Delivering Figure: Business objectives within the training life cycle (Winter, 1995). The training strategy is a system that determines the competencies required for the organization in the future and how it can be achieved. Organisations need these training strategies for different perspectives like- -To increase the productivity through expenditure on capital improvements -To increase the productivity through spending on developing human capital (http://ezinearticles.com/?How-to-Develop-a-Training-Strategyid=1608871; How to Develop a Training Strategy-By Janine Sergay; 18.08; 2.50pm). Different methods of training for people: Generally there are two types of training methods. a) On-site training methods 1) On the job training: In this training method, trainees get training under the direction of someone and encouraging them to gain knowledge and observe more and more from the existing experienced employees. Though its formal training so every employee get some initial knowledge from it. 2) Job rotation: This training method allows people to move in different department of the organisations. Through this job rotation employees develop skills in different section more than they would get from staying in one department. 3) Apprenticeship: Apprenticeship is a particular form on the job training though which a particular level employees used to get information about skilled trade (Goldstein Ford, 2002).For example; different company like:-electrician,plumber,carpenter,pipefitter,sheet metal worker etc. Is used this approach. b) Off-site training methods 1) Classroom lectures: Its one of the common methods of job training. It can provide large number of information at a time and easy to deliver it to the large no of trainees at a time. 2) Instruction in the form written material or forms based on computer. 3) Computer based training (CBT): Its a way training by which trainees can communicate and transfer and get information from instructor through computer, television etc. (Goldstein Ford, 2002).Its distance learning.( Work in the 21st Century: An Introduction to Industrial and Organizational Psychology By Frank J. Landy, Jeffrey M. Conte,p:331-334) Development of HR: Human Resource is the framework for employees can develop their personal and organizational skills, knowledge, abilities. Human resource development include; employee training, employee career, development, performance management and development, coaching, mentoring, succession planning, key employee identification. oclock, 23 March, 2010) Understand the organizational needs and future demand as well as future capability, and know what talent it has available to it. And prove, as far possible, a career challenge to individuals that helps them to meet their aspirations. In developing the organization, personal development also important for the organizational improvement, because a individual persons are the set of organizational power mean resources. In bellow there the method of development: Individual Support- Organizational Interest- Dialogue Accreditation Organizational Mapping Performance Management Career-counselling Succession planning Appraisal discussion Career-planning Secondments Career discussion Personal plans Manpower/skills planning Development centres Mentoring Training prioritisation Vacancy management Learning resource centres Retention Strategies Self-managed learning 360 degree feedback Potential assessment Managerial coaching External coaching High-flyer development Flexible working Training facilities getting to grips with the requirements of a job quickly, and by improving the knowledge and skill of worker it allows the employee better quality, and enhance of skill based on the employee could lead to their job enrichment with benefits to both the individual and the organization. Motivational impact of training in a manifest when staff feel a sense of reorganization when sent on training course, and after been trained they are motivated to acquire new skills, particularly when rewards follow the acquisition and use of skills. Identification with organization could be fostered when a better understanding of mission statements and corporate objectives is achieved through training. (Graham, H T, Bennet, R. (1995). Human resource Management (ME Book).Eight Editions. Singapore: PWD Redmond) Strategies for positive employee relation: (Employee relations: how to build strong relationships with your employees By Laurie Dicker, p-2) Employees are the stake holder of the organisation and cant be compared with task, functions, process or products. Emotional support and personal considerations are required for them to understand them. Its very complicated to draw up employees inventory and arrange them in warehouse in a systematic way. Any decisions regarding this will attempt a negative impact on them and may cause a break down in operations. So it is very important for the organisation to identify and value those differences and always give importance on the achieving positive and fruitful employee relations. The main concern of employee relations strategy: -How to minimise the conflict by maintaining employee relations through building stable and cooperative relationships. -How to achieve employee commitment though involvement of employee involvement and communication processes. -How to develop interest in employees towards the achievement of organisational goals. Strategic direction. ( Strategic human resource management: a guide to action By Michael Armstrong) The approaches of human resource management towards employee relations: -To drive them for commitment: To get all the employees with the organisations by winning their heart and minds and make sure a fruitful return on training and development. -A emphasizing on mutuality: getting the letter across that we are all together in this. -A shifting of collective bargaining in the organisation to individual. -By using of employee involvement techniques. -Through applying total quality management (TQM) -To use human resources more effectively sometimes increase flexibility in working environment, including multi skilling -By giving more importance on team work (Human Resource Management- By Derek Torrington, Laura Hall, Stephen Taylor,p-453)Once organisation has established it is very difficult to change the organisations culture, this means to change the employee relationships culture is also difficult. The organisation will become more successful when senior management think employee relationship strategically in employee perception rather than rival organisations. It can be achieved simply by aiming to recruit and retain more effectively and by developing employee relationship strategies to increase the overall satisfaction of employees though chances (like feeling interest in job, job security, positive completion, and influence them performance) and decrease the dissatisfaction. Performance management: Performance in an organisation cannot be defined but it can be measured. Its measurement of muti-dimentional construct depending on variety of factors (Bates and Holton, 1995). Bernadin el al (1995) concerned that Outcomes of work should be defined as performance because it creates a strong linkage with organisational goals, customer satisfactions and economic contributions. It is about managing of the organisation in the perspective of internal and external environment. There are different stages of performance management showed in figure 2.1: High performance Improved performance Low performance Start year Agreement of performance During year Monitoring and review against agreement End year Review of main performance Figure 2.1: Different stages of performance management Performance management involves continuous review of performance against organisational objectives, requirements and plans and the performance agreement, enhancement by implementation and developments line-up for the next. Business strategy, employee development and total quality management (TQM) are main processes in the business that should be linked with the performance management for achieving business performance (Hartle, 1995). Basically the force for vertical and horizontal integration is performance management. Vertical integration: Vertically It can be achieved in two ways. Firstly, it facilitates the coalition of strategies and plans of the business with individuals and teams. There targeted aims are those that support the success of corporate goals.secondly, the organisational core values and capabilities should take place through vertical integration as well as values adopted and the level of potential achieved by individuals. Horizontal integration: It is the association of performance management and human resource strategies that deals with valuing, paying, relating and developing people. Organisations effectiveness can be increased through the impact of performance management. The effectiveness of the organisations can be improved by adopting with various processes of managing, motivating and developing people through successful integration with performance management (Performance management: key strategies and practical guidelines Michael Armstrong Kogan Page Publishers, 2000 259 pages, P-2-10). It shows in figure 1.3: Figure 1.3: Performance management as a central point for integrated HR activities Reward: Reward management: a handbook of remuneration strategy and practice Michael ArmstrongHelen MurlisHay Group Kogan Page Publishers, 2007 Business HYPERLINK http://www.google.co.uk/search?tbs=bks:1,bkv:atbo=pq=+subject:Business++Economicssource=gbs_ge_summary_rcad=0HYPERLINK http://www.google.co.uk/search?tbs=bks:1,bkv:atbo=pq=+subject:Business++Economicssource=gbs_ge_summary_rcad=0 Economics 722 pages The main purpose of reward is to increase job performance, productivity, meet the customer expectation and to hold recognition. In other way- -To achieve the goal -To accomplish the task on time -To take out boring from work place -To promote the employee to work -To meet the higher and lower order needs Strategies for reward: All employees are in the reward strategy for example: line managers, stake holders. All the employees work hard with skills and effort in return they get salary and other performance bonus from employers. Its also good relationships developed between employees and employers through good working environment and excellent communication. In broader sense strategic aims include: -To introduce a more incorporated approach to reward management and encouraging the employees through continuous personal development. -To develop flexible approach. -To reward people according to employees contribution. -To make a clear specification about what behaviour will be rewarded and why. Reward management: a handbook of remuneration strategy and practice Michael Armstrong, Helen Murlis, Hay Group Kogan Page Publishers, 2007 Business HYPERLINK http://www.google.co.uk/search?tbs=bks:1,bkv:atbo=pq=+subject:Business++Economicssource=gbs_ge_summary_rcad=0HYPERLINK http://www.google.co.uk/search?tbs=bks:1,bkv:atbo=pq=+subject:Business++Economicssource=gbs_ge_summary_rcad=0 Economics 722 pages; p-35, 39 According to Contingency theory applied to reward: -Different reward strategies are required for organisational diversity and cultures. -Different reward strategies and its usefulness vary according the organisations policies and practices. Business strategies may take forward the business strategy inside the organisation. The interrelationship between the employees and managers will influence the strategies at different levels in the organisations. -performance related pay should depends on the way motivation of employees Employee reward Michael Armstrong; CIPD Publishing, 2002 Business HYPERLINK http://www.google.co.uk/search?tbs=bks:1,bkv:atbo=pq=+subject:Business++Economicssource=gbs_ge_summary_rcad=0HYPERLINK http://www.google.co.uk/search?tbs=bks:1,bkv:atbo=pq=+subject:Business++Economicssource=gbs_ge_summary_rcad=0 Economics 528 pages; p-91, 94, 95 Initiatives for specific rewards: It depends on the examination of present circumstances in the organisation and need of evaluation of the business and its employees. Examples of some possible initiatives: 1) The establishment of contribution pay scheme through replacing of present methods of contingent pay 2) The initialisation of new grades and pay structure 3) The substitution job evaluation scheme with more clarified scheme that shows values and needs of the organisation. 4) The improvement of flexible benefit system 5) The arrangement of announcement and training programmes to tell all the employees about the reward policies and practices. Development of Reward strategy: Development of strategy: In todays organisation is facing fast changing economic environment, technological advancement and globalisation. Organisations have to cope up with these changes. The close fit between business strategy and HR strategy actually help to reach their desired target. Aligning human resources and business strategy Linda Holbeche Butterworth-Heinemann, 2009 Business HYPERLINK http://www.google.co.uk/search?tbs=bks:1,bkv:atbo=pq=+subject:Business++Economicssource=gbs_ge_summary_rcad=0HYPERLINK http://www.google.co.uk/search?tbs=bks:1,bkv:atbo=pq=+subject:Business++Economicssource=gbs_ge_summary_rcad=0 Economics 498 pages From the business point of view, it has to take account on trend such as concentration on core business, market segments, get maximum values from reward system, and give more importance on flexibility. They have to change the old system with the best practices to meet these requirements. The design of reward system must need to be fair and need to operate consistently to recognize individuals needs. There are many steps for developing strategies: Determine the main issues for business strategy that affects the reward and policy To find out crucial success factors for the business and need to think implications for human resource and reward strategies. Need to keep in eye on old reward strategies and identify any change require for that to adapt that with new changes of the organisations. To identify the implications for HR plans to establish future needs. Discuss with the consultant about how to develop reward strategies Consider external factors like policies of government, income tax regulations, peoples pay and pressure from local or international.

Differentiated Instruction

Due to the differences in the ability of every student to learn, the need for differentiated instruction, also known as differentiated learning and multi-level instruction, increases that involves a variety of strategies used by teachers in addressing every students learning. Basically, differentiated instruction is a way by which teachers find a variety of ways in teaching in order for students to have multiple options in gathering information, creating new ideas and teaching students in the same class with different abilities.It involves the recognition of the difference in the students background knowledge, preferences in learning, interest and as well as language, readiness and their ability to react responsively. The main premise of the theory is that the teaching approaches should vary and be adapted in relation to the diverse students in the classroom and as well as in relation to every individual students. Thus, the teacher’s main challenge is to come with a variety of ways in order to maximize the growth of every student by individually meeting each student while assisting in the learning process.Differentiated instruction aims to encourage the inclusion of all the students while addressing different learning styles and allowing diversity among the students. It also fosters self-worth together with social relation among the students while meeting the emotional and especially the academic needs of every student and allowing the teachers to reach all of his or her students. Thus, teachers really have to put a lot of effort in order to differentiate instruction for the benefit of their students.Differentiated instruction is important especially in the elementary grade because students at this level greatly vary especially in their knowledge background and ability to comprehend. Thus, teachers at this level have the greatest challenge of maximizing every students potential by attending to their differences in various ways, thus differentiating instr uctions. It can also be said that differentiating instruction also relates to the professionalism of every teachers, their competency and creativeness.It can also determine the eagerness and dedication of the teachers to help their students since differentiated instruction takes a lot of time and preparation. Based on the readiness of students, there are at least four elements in which teachers can differentiate such as content, process, products and the learning environment. The contents are the information that every student must comprehend and differentiating content would mean using different materials and elements in order to support the context.Differentiating process involves activities in order for the students to have an understanding and grasp of the subject matter that most of the time uses flexible grouping. The products involves the termination of the activities and asking the students to rehearse, extend and apply everything the he or she was able to learn in the activ ity thus, making the students active in exploring the knowledge that he or she acquires. Differentiating learning environment on the other hand is basically the way the classroom feels and works.If for example in an elementary school, differentiating content may include putting the text materials in a tape or using both auditory and visual means in presenting a topic. It may also include having buddies or forming a small group and using different reading materials with varying levels of readability. Differentiating process on the other hand may include activities in which learners with the same understanding and ability work together or offering hands-on supports for those students who are in need.Time variation for students to be able to finished a certain task can also help in supporting struggling students to have a full understanding of the topic while encouraging advanced learners to search for the topic in a deeper sense. Differentiating products may include activities in whic h students have to work on their own or in group in order to accomplished a certain task or giving the students the options for them to express the required learning through different activities such as letter writing or maybe, a puppet show.Differentiating learning environment on the other hand may include ensuring that the place or room is free from distractions such as noises and other distractions or providing materials in relation to the topic for better understanding. There are certainly several ways of presenting a topic to students and differentiated instruction is widely needed by students especially in the elementary level. However, differentiated instruction does not only fit elementary students but every student from different levels as well.Through differentiated instruction subject matter can also be more comprehensible for English Language Learners and as well as those students with special needs through the use of different activities. Acknowledging the different nee ds of every student specially those with special needs will also help the teacher to prepare special teaching methods for the students to have an understanding of the subject matter. It will also help to pay more attention to these kinds of students, offering them more of their time.Traditional method of teaching, commonly lecture discussions, practice works and others have its own advantages such as being uniform and consistent, however, due to the differences in the learning ability and adaptability of every student (that is recognized by every teacher) flexibility is also needed, one thing that traditional method lacks. On the other, differentiated instruction take into consideration that every student are different and have different learning abilities, thus, making appropriate actions to fill in the gap of those who are left behind.The use of differentiated instruction involves the clarification of key concepts to ensure that all students are gaining powerful understanding that will serve as their foundation for future learning. Assessment tools are also used before, during and as well as after the given learning activity that does not necessarily mean a written examination. Also, the goal of differentiated instruction is to provide critical and creative activities to ensure understanding on the part of every student. It also takes into account that every learners, although different are essential and thus striving to meet the needs of every students.Differentiated instruction also helps in creating a balance student-selected and teacher-assigned task. These characteristics enable differentiated instruction to be more effective that traditional teaching methods. Differentiated instruction is also flexible to meet the needs of other students to maximize their potential and learning. Thus, it can be said that differentiated instruction indeed is needed in the contemporary time. It was said that differentiated instruction is a compilation of many theories an d practice in the field of learning thus, providing a greater understanding of the needs of every student.It is based on years of studies and researches and as well ass educational theories and concept such as the concept of readiness. Researches from the 1980’s up to the contemporary time also shows that practices such as grouping of students and engaging learners are really effective in the learning of students. We may have been used to the traditional method of teaching, i. e. board lectures and the likes; however this method may not be suitable in the contemporary time. What we need today is not set of rules and activities.The needs of every student’s changes along with time and traditional methods may not just work in every situation. Maximizing learning and understanding is the main purpose of every teacher and if that would mean acquiring new methods then, there is nothing wrong in doing so. Thus, differentiation must be encouraged in every learning institution for the betterment of the present and the generations to come. Changes are part of our everyday life and there are times that we must embrace those changes, such as differentiated instruction, in order to achieve greater heights.

Meaning and History of the Surname Callaghan

The Callaghan surname is derived from the Gaelic name Ó Ceallagchà ¡in, meaning descendant of Ceallanchà ¡n. The O prefix indicates descendant of, while Ceallagchà ¡in is a diminutive of Ceallach, a given name of uncertain origin. The most widely accepted meaning is bright-headed, from the Gaelic cen, meaning head and lach, meaning light Other possibilities include: lover of churches, from ceall, meaning churchfrom the Old Irish ceallach, meaning contention, strifeFrom ciallach, meaning prudent, judicious Surname Origin:  Irish Alternate Surname Spellings:  OCALLAGHAN, CALLAHAN, CALLACHAN, CEALLACHAIN, CELLACHAN, CEALLAGHAN, CELLACHAIN, OCALLAGHAN, OCALLAHAN, KEELAGHAN Famous People with the Surname CALLAGHAN Fr Richard Callaghan - 18th century Irish Jesuit educationalistEdmund Bailey OCallaghan - Irish doctor and journalistJohn Cornelius OCallaghan - Irish historian and writerSir Francis OCallaghan - Irish civil engineerJames Callaghan  - UK Prime Minister, 1976–79Dr. Patrick Pat  OCallaghan - considered one of Irelands greatest athletes; Olympic gold medalist Where is the CALLAGHAN  Surname Most Commonly Found? Forebears identifies the  Callaghan  surname as being most common in Ireland, where it ranks 112th in the nation. It is also fairly common in Northern Ireland (ranked 433rd), Scotland (541st), Australia (593rd), Wales (653rd), New Zealand (657th) and England (658th). Within Ireland, Callaghan is the most common in Cork. The OCallaghan variant ranks just behind Callaghan in Ireland, coming in as number 113. WorldNames PublicProfiler identifies the Callaghan surname as more common in Donegal and the other northern Irish counties. Genealogy Resources for the Surname CALLAGHAN Common Surnames of IrelandDiscover the meaning of your Irish last name, and learn where in Ireland these Irish surnames are most commonly found Callaghan  Family Crest - Its Not What You ThinkContrary to what you may hear, there is no such thing as a Callaghan  family crest or coat of arms for the Callaghan surname.  Coats of arms are granted to individuals, not families, and may rightfully be used only by the uninterrupted male line descendants of the person to whom the coat of arms was originally granted. OCallaghan/Callaghan/Callahan/Keelaghan DNA ProjectIndividuals with the Callaghan surname and variations are invited to join this project dedicated to combining the results of DNA testing with genealogy research to identify various Callaghan and OCallaghan family lines. Callaghan Family Genealogy ForumSearch this popular genealogy forum for the Callaghan surname to find others who might be researching your ancestors, or post your own Callaghan query. DistantCousin.com - CALLAGHAN  Genealogy Family HistoryExplore free databases and genealogy links for the last name Callaghan. GeneaNet - Callaghan  RecordsGeneaNet includes archival records, family trees, and other resources for individuals with the Callaghan  surname, with a concentration on records and families from France and other European countries. The Callaghan  Genealogy and Family Tree PageBrowse family trees and links to genealogical and historical records for individuals with the last name Callaghan  from the website of Genealogy Today. Sources Cottle, Basil.  Penguin Dictionary of Surnames. Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1967. Dorward, David.  Scottish Surnames. Collins Celtic (Pocket edition), 1998. Fucilla, Joseph.  Our Italian Surnames. Genealogical Publishing Company, 2003. Hanks, Patrick and Flavia Hodges.  A Dictionary of Surnames. Oxford University Press, 1989. Hanks, Patrick.  Dictionary of American Family Names. Oxford University Press, 2003. Reaney, P.H.  A Dictionary of English Surnames. Oxford University Press, 1997. Smith, Elsdon C.  American Surnames. Genealogical Publishing Company, 1997.

A Meta Analysis Of Schizophrenia Used By Heinrichs And...

Within the 47 studies, were wide ranges of neuropsychological tests including 156 cognitive test variables. This meta-analysis categorized the tests into ten broad, separable cognitive domains allowing for a general outline. These tests were categorized based on a similar outline for a meta-analysis of schizophrenia used by Heinrichs and Zakzanis in 1998. These ten cognitive domains support quantitative and interpretive comparisons and include: immediate verbal memory, attention (divided into three subdomains of processing speed, working memory, and vigilance), nonverbal memory, general cognitive ability, language functions, visuospatial abilities, delayed verbal memory and learning strategies, executive functioning, social cognition, and motor skills. Studies show medium to large deficits for first episode schizophrenia samples compared to the control samples. Testing indicated first episode samples preform worse and show impairments in each domain category compared to control sampl es based on negative ES values. In addition, analyses showed significant heterogeneity amongst all ten domains (Mesholam-Gately et al., 2009). It is evident that there are significant impairments among first episode samples in the three groups of memory, specifically in both serial list learning and story memory immediate recall where SMDs were -1.20. A smaller ES (SMD of -0.85) was found in delayed verbal memory and learning strategies; similarly, the nonverbal memory domain SMD was -0.91. AllShow MoreRelatedThe Responsibilities Of Cognitive Functions1718 Words   |  7 Pagesor improving cognitive function. Causes of Decline Cognition There are many causes for the decline of cognitive function. Mental illness can affect how the mind perceives the information that is delivered through senses and experiences. Schizophrenia patients experience neuropsychological impairment. Age is accompanied by a slightly altered cognition, however in most cases is not life altering. There are diseases such as dementia and Alzheimer’s that inhibit cognitive function. Injuries at